The Governor-General represented the British monarch as head of state and was appointed by the Crown on the advice of the Nigerian prime minister in consultation with the regional premiers. Though the Europeans possess many considerable settlements both upon the coast of Africa and in the East Indies, they have not yet established in either of those countries such numerous and thriving colonies as those in the islands and continent of America. Nigeria's first nationalist movements appeared in the 1920s, and resistance to colonial rule grew over the next three decades. [45], A campaign against the Sokoto Caliphate began in 1900 with the creation of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, under the direction of Governor Lugard. After the Napoleon war, the British tried to expand their colonial rule in Africa and began to establish trade tides with Nigeria in 1898. Although the capital was not moved, Lugard's bias in favour of the Muslim north was clear at the time. Christian missionaries were barred, and the limited government efforts in education were harmonized with Islamic institutions.[67]. [59], Lugard advocated constantly for the unification of the whole territory, and in August 1911 the Colonial Office asked Lugard to lead the amalgamated colony.[60]. Combining the three jurisdictions would reduce administrative expenses and facilitate deployment of resources and money between the areas. In some cases, British assignment of people to ethnic groups, and treatment based along ethnic lines, led to identification with ethnicity where none had existed before.[84]. In the Northern Region, the colonial government took careful account of Islam and avoided any appearance of a challenge to traditional values that might incite resistance to British rule. The influx of cowrie led to inflation. Otherwise, the Governor-General's office was essentially ceremonial. By the 1820s, the British had made connections . In Africa, Nigerians lived under British rule from 1900 to 1960. The NPC continued to represent the interests of the traditional order in the pre-independence deliberations. colonizers and passive resistance by refusing to collaborate with the colonizers e .g. Another court was established in 1856 at Calabar, based on an agreement with local Efik traders which prohibited them from interfering with British merchants. [19], West Africa also bought British exports, supplying 3040% of the demand for British cotton during the Industrial Revolution of 17501790.[27]. Nigeria is a good example. In 1957, the Western and the Eastern regions became formally self-governing under the parliamentary system. (During World War II they again served in East Africa, as well as in Burma [now Myanmar].) [74] But with the advancement and efficiency of colonial transportation networks, it was only a matter of time before the disease began to spread into the interior. Most internal problems were concealed, and open opposition to the domination of the Muslim aristocracy was not tolerated. This is what happened in 1929 when Igbo and Ibibio market women in Owerri and Calabar (Nigeria) made war against warrant chiefs and colonial authorities over issues of taxation and colonial administration. The preparation of a new federal constitution for an independent Nigeria was carried out at conferences held at Lancaster House in London in 1957 and 1958, which were presided over by The Rt. Uneasy with the amount of latitude allowed traditional rulers under indirect rule, Clifford opposed further extension of the judicial authority held by the northern emirs. Indigenous Resistance to New Colonialism. Examples of passive resistance include complex and/or costly application processes, a failure to provide guidance on how to request information, or enforcement mechanisms that are difficult to use. Central Africa to 1964. Vice consuls were assigned to ports that already had concluded treaties of cooperation with the Foreign Office. It was suspended in 1950 against a call for greater autonomy, which resulted in an inter-parliamentary conference at Ibadan in 1950. David Richardson, "Background to annexation: Anglo-African credit relations in the Bight of Biafra, 17001891"; in Ptr-Grenouilleau. This study examines the nature of various economic activities of the Adamawa emirate during the pre-colonial period. [31], Captain John Glover, the colony's administrator, created a militia of Hausa troops in 1861. Because Western education and Christianity spread rapidly in the south and not in the north, development was much slower in the north, and the growing disparity between north and south later caused political tensions. British influence in the Niger area increased gradually over the 19th century, but Britain did not effectively occupy the area until 1885. With one man in practical control of the Executive and Legislative organs of all the parts, the machine may work passably for sufficient time to enable the transition period to be left behind, by which time the answer to the problemUnitary v. Federal Statewill probably have become clear. British expansion accelerated in the last decades of the nineteenth century. The Colonial Era (1882-1960) British colonialism began under the pretense of policing the slave trade. [73], Due to the failure of the sanitation officers in Lagos, the virus would continue to spread throughout the southern provinces throughout September and finally make its way into the hinterlands by October. With the exception of Brandenburg-Prussia's short-lived attempt to gain a foothold on the West African coast and to participate in the 17th-century transatlantic slave trade, German colonialism began only in the 1880s. Armed resistance decreased in the 1920s but protest continued, "characterised by civil rights and civil . [19] Ultimately, this became the Royal Niger Company. In case of resistance by one of its friends the other would join hands to mount formidable resistance against colonial rule e.g. [53] The first five heads of the Nigeria Department (18981914) were Reginald Antrobus, William Mercer, William Baillie Hamilton, Sydney Olivier, and Charles Strachey. In the year 1901, Nigeria officially became a part of the huge British Empire. Native institutions were utilized and interference with local customs kept to a minimum, although the British did not always understand the local customs. There was virtually no pressure for greater unity among the regions until after the end of World War II. [49], Concrete plans for transition to Crown ruledirect control by the British Governmentapparently began in 1897. They wanted self-government, charging that only colonial rule prevented the unshackling of progressive forces in Nigeria and other states. As a historical event, anticolonialism means the struggle against imperial rule in colonized countries, mostly during the first half of the twentieth century. The Northern People's Congress (NPC) was organised in the late 1940s by a small group of Western-educated Northern Nigerians. Although lacking Azikiwe's compelling personality, Awolowo was a formidable debater as well as a vigorous and tenacious political campaigner. The seven men who governed Northern Nigeria, Southern Nigeria and Lagos through 1914 were Henry McCallum, William MacGregor, Walter Egerton, Ralph Moor, Percy Girouard, Hesketh Bell and Frederick Lugard. vestigation of the forms of primary resistance by Africans to the impo-sition of colonial rule in the classic period of European imperialism, say from 1880 to 1914. If an eye is kept on the Gazettes as they come in this will enable us to warn him of any objections we may entertain to legislative proposals, and also give Liverpool and Manchester an opportunity of voicing their objections. Thanks. Out of reverence for traditional kingship, for instance, the Oba of Benin, whose office was closely identified with Edo religion, was accepted as the sponsor of a Yoruba political movement. "Specifically, the Company sought to secure the cooperation of the traditional rulers in ensuring peaceful conditions for trade. The most important of these was a near fetish with indirect rule that was supposed to facilitate a cheap and effective ruling strategy. Ajay. In the face of threats to the divided Yoruba states from Dahomey and the Sokoto Caliphate, as represented by the emirate of Ilorin, the British Governorassisted by the CMSsucceeded in imposing peace settlements on the interior. This video gives a detailed explanation of Colonial rule in Africa, as it answers the questions: Why did Europeans colonize africa? They, in turn, have by defeat lost their rule which has come into the hands of the British. In the north, the emirs intended to maintain firm control on economic and political change. . Britain annexed Lagos in 1861 and established the Oil River Protectorate in 1884. These were the Agent-General, the Senior Judicial Officer, and the Commandant of the Constabulary. [58], Some of these public work projects were accomplished with the help of forced labour from native black Africans, referred to as "Political Labour". Palm oil was used locally for cooking, the kernels were a source for food, trees were tapped for palm wine, and the fronds were used for building material. Clifford also believed that indirect rule encouraged centripetal tendencies. In these territories, violent resistance brought colonial rule to a close. Recovery came quickly and improvements in port facilities and the transportation infrastructure during World War I furthered economic development. In 1944 Macaulay and Nnamdi Azikiwe, an Igbo who had been educated in the United States, united more than 40 different groups to establish the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC). The Treasury used a planned budget for payment of staff and development of public works projects, and therefore could not be spent at the discretion of the local traditional ruler. The departure of Azikiwe and other Igbo members of the NYM left the organisation in Yoruba hands. [75] The colonial government was not equipped nor ready in general for such a situation. Although churchmen in Britain had been influential in the drive to abolish the slave trade, significant missionary activity for Africa did not develop until the 1840s. It soon gained a virtual monopoly over trade along the River[11]. In 1907, the corporation received a loan of 25,000, repayable upon discovery of oil. [50] In the same year, the British created the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF or WAFF), under the leadership of Colonel Frederick Lugard. The women's protest of 1929 marked an apex in women's resistance in eastern Nigeria to colonial rule. Further dislocation accompanied the outbreak of World War I. To be sure, there were widespread resistances against colonial rule, which include the 'Abd al-Qadir led resistance against the French in Algeria, the Asante King (Prempeh I) led revolt against British colonialists in Ghana, the Maji Maji revolt in Tanganyika, the Ndebele rebellions in Rhodasia, the Ijebu Kingdom and the Opobo resistances in . practice of indirect rule, Brown contends that culture industries like Nollywood can sustain capitalism . Areas with lucrative crops such as cacao and peanuts (groundnuts) profited, while many people in different parts of the country had to migrate to work elsewhere as tenant farmers or use their newly acquired education and skills to work in cities as wage earners, traders, and artisans. We bind ourselves not to have any intercourse with any strangers or foreigners except through the said national African Company (Limited), and we give the said National African Company (Limited) full power to exclude all other strangers and foreigners from their territory at their discretion. Despite these difficulties, the Action Group rapidly built an effective organisation. How did Africans resist c. In the 1920s, Nigerians began to form a variety of associations, such as professional and business associations, like the Nigerian Union of Teachers; the Nigerian Law Association, which brought together lawyers, many of whom had been educated in Britain; and the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association, led by Obafemi Awolowo. Inteno Fiberkonverter Blinkar, Herkules Flygplan Fakta, Kraftvrme Frdelar Och Nackdelar, Infllt Mtarskp Utomhus . Consequently, in 1849, John Beecroft was accredited as consul for the bights of Benin and Biafra, a jurisdiction stretching from Dahomey to Cameroon. In 1850, the British created a "Court of Equity" at Bonny, overseen by Beecroft, which would deal with trade disputes. Later Nigerian troops were sent to East Africa. Colonial official A. J. Harding commented in 1913: Sir F. Lugard's proposal contemplates a state which it is impossible to classify. In 1851 deposed king Akintoye of Lagos sought British help in restoring him to the throne. It was a relatively simple adjustment for many Igbo families to transport the oil to rivers and streams that led to the Niger Delta for sale to European merchants. The principal figure in the political activity that ensued was Herbert Macauley, often referred to as the father of Nigerian nationalism. In contrast to Lugard, Clifford argued that colonial government had the responsibility to introduce as quickly as practical the benefits of Western experience. The Deputy Governor served as political administrator for company territory and appointed three officials in Nigeria to carry out the work of administration. For this objective, the Company chose to administer the African inhabitants of the Niger Sudan through their traditional rulers and their political institutions. Although he reported on the eastward flow of the Niger, he was forced to turn back when his equipment was lost to Muslim Arab slave traders. [12] Trade was also conducted through a mechanism of barter and credit. Background: Attitudes Towards Policing The period from the mid-1800s to the early 1900s marked the zenith of imperial rule in Africa. The militias and RWAFF battalions were reorganized into the RWAFF Nigeria Regiment.[62]. Anticolonialism in the twentieth and twenty-first century refers to two interconnected concepts: a historical event and a critical analytic. [17] In 1767, British traders facilitated a notorious massacre of hundreds of people at Calabar after inviting them onto their ships, ostensibly to settle a local dispute. Herbert Richmond Palmer developed details of this model from 1906 to 1911 as the Governor of Northern Nigeria after Lugard.[66]. Awolowo had little difficulty in appealing to broad segments of the Yoruba population, but he worked to avoid the Action Group from being stigmatized as a "tribal" group. In the South, only English had official status. This was used for Britain's main purpose of taking control of the region. Support for broad Nigerian concerns occupied a clear second place. In 1922 Kamerun was divided under a League of Nations mandate between France and Britain, Britain administering its area within the government of Nigeria; after 1946 the mandated areas were redesignated as a United Nations (UN) trust territory. Resistance to colonial rule took a number of forms, incrementally moving Nigeria toward independence. Demanding immediate self-government, the Action Group was opposed by the Northern Peoples Congress (NPC), which was composed largely of northerners and headed by several leaders, including Abubakar Tafawa Balewa. Men such as Balewa believed that only by overcoming political and economic backwardness could the NPC protect the foundations of traditional northern authority against the influence of the more advanced south. His mission failed, but Park and his party covered more than 1,500 kilometres (930mi), passing through the western portions of the Sokoto Caliphate, before drowning when their boats overturned in rapids near Bussa. In 1923 Herbert Macaulay, the grandson of Samuel Ajayi Crowther, established the first Nigerian political party, the Nigerian National Democratic Party, which successfully contested three Lagos seats in the Legislative Council. The council was headed by a Governor. At the same time, British scientists were interested in exploring the course and related settlements along the Niger River. [73] In direct reaction to the epidemic, colonial authorities allowed African doctors and medical personnel to work with influenza patients due to the severity of the situation. Main aim. The conference drafted the terms of a new constitution. It was not a walk over for the British to conquer Nigeria, some individuals and groups resisted the imposition of colonial rule. Divide and rule policy: This was mainly applied in areas where African societies or population had poor relations as a result of differences between their leaders or divisions created by Christian religious sects to easily defeat Africans in case of impending resistance against colonial rule. Ist October, 2010, marks The 50th anniversary of Nigeria's independence from imperial Britain. The officers of the RWAFF were British. [32], In 1880, the British Government and traders demonetised the Maria Theresa dollar, to the considerable dismay of its local holders, in favour of the pound sterling. Park reached the upper Niger the next year by travelling inland from the Gambia River. [22] Many locals remained unconvinced of the Crown's authority to completely reverse the legal and moral attributes of a social institution through fiat. He aroused political awareness through his newspaper, the Lagos Daily News. Gradually, however, the trade forced major economic and social changes in the interior, although it hardly undermined slavery and the slave trade. They had obtained the assent of the emirs to form a political party to counterbalance the activities of the southern-based parties. The British accomplished the colonization by using its military. Read published a Memorandum on British possessions in West Africa, which remarked upon the "inconvenient and unscientific boundaries" between Lagos Colony, the Niger Coast Protectorate and the Royal Niger Company. [19][41], In 18961897 the forces of the Niger Coast Protectorate fought with the remnants of the Edo Empire. Most people under colonialism lived their lives normally until a policy like this came about. [40] By 1893, most of the other political entities in Yorubaland recognised the practical necessity of signing another treaty with the British, this one explicitly joining them with the protectorate of Lagos. He also led the Nigerian National Democratic Party, which dominated elections in Lagos from its founding in 1922 until the ascendancy of the National Youth Movement in 1938. The Sokoto jihad and the Yoruba wars stimulated the slave trade at a time when the British were actively trying to stop it. The Macpherson constitution, promulgated in 1951, provided for a central House of Representatives, but friction between the central and regional legislatures, related to the question of where supreme party authority lay, soon caused a breakdown. [19] Although the Ijebu had some weapons they were wiped out by British Maxims, the earliest machine gun. Beecroft was the British representative to Fernando Po, where the African Slave Trade Patrol of the Royal Navy was stationed. [57], From 1895 to 1900, a railway was constructed running from Lagos to Ibadan; it opened in March 1901. tax. Acephalous . The Emirs and chiefs who are appointed will rule over the people as of old-time and take such taxes as are approved by the High Commissioner, but they will obey the laws of the Governor and will act in accordance with the advice of the Resident. The policy of indirect rule used in Northern Nigeria became a model for British colonies elsewhere in Africa. Hon. [64], Each region also had a Native Administration, staffed by locals, and possessing a Native Treasury. Updated: 11/12/2021 Create an account Some African Christian communities formed their own independent churches. In 1912, Lugard returned to Nigeria from his six-year term as Governor of Hong Kong, to oversee the merger of the northern and southern protectorates. European slave trading from West Africa began before 1650, with people taken at a rate of about 3,000 per year. Independent Christian churches had emerged at the end of the nineteenth century. As before, Aro merchants dominated trade in the hinterland, including palm products to the coast and the sale of slaves within Igboland. The company's major imports to the area included gin and low-quality firearms. ", Simon Heap, "'We think prohibition is a farce': drinking in the alcohol-prohibited zone of colonial northern Nigeria. Economic hardship caused by the war certainly underlay and even provoked resistance against the colonial authorities. Formal diplomatic relations were established with the opening of the American Embassy in Lagos and of the Nigerian Embassy in Washington, both on 1 October 1960, the same day which Nigeria acquired its independence from British rule. In pursuance of the above general principles the chief civil officers of the provinces are to be called Residents which implies one who carries on diplomatic relations rather than Commissioners or Administrators. In an economy with many qualified applicants for every post, great resentment was generated by any favouritism that authorities showed to members of their own ethnic group. [63], The Protectorate was centrally administered by the Colonial Civil Service, staffed by Britons and Africans called the British Native Staffmany of whom originated from outside the territory. what were negative effects of colonial rule in african continent. Nigeria became an independent state on the October 1, 1960 after being a British colony for over 40 years. The Central African Federation, embracing Nyasaland, Northern and Southern Rhodesia, was created in 1953 . In 1886, Taubman secured a royal charter and his company became the Royal Niger Company. The Igbo redirected slaves into the domestic economy, especially to grow the staple food crop, yams, in northern Igboland for marketing throughout the palm-tree belt. 22. By extending the elective principle and by providing for a central government with a Council of Ministers, the Macpherson Constitution gave renewed impetus to party activity and to political participation at the national level. They caused major transformations in traditional society as they eroded the religious institutions such as human sacrifice, infanticide and secret societies, which had formerly played a role in political authority and community life.[26]. Elections were held for a new and greatly enlarged House of Representatives in December 1959; 174 of the 312 seats were allocated to the Northern Region on the basis of its larger population. Despite his somewhat successful efforts to enlist non-Yoruba support, the regionalist sentiment that had stimulated the party initially continued. Broadening political participation and expanding educational opportunities and other social services also were viewed as threats to the status quo. Officials of the Sokoto Caliphate considered these treaties quite differently; from their perspective, the British were granted only extraterritorial rights that did not prevent similar arrangements with the Germans and the French and certainly did not surrender sovereignty. By the 1950s, there were organized nationalist parties that demanded political independence in almost every colony in Africa. The only significant interruption in economic development arose from natural disasterthe Great Drought of 191314. 1324 Words6 Pages. In 1946 a new constitution was approved by the British Parliament at Westminster and promulgated in Nigeria. This rate rose to 20,000 per year in the last quarter of the century. Author. The British finalized the border between Nigeria and French West Africa with the Anglo-French Convention of 1898. [19] This scenario provided an opportunity for naval expeditions and reconnaissance throughout the region. [37] Economically, local colonial administrators also pushed for the imposition of British colonial rule, believing that trade and taxation conducted in British pounds would prove far more lucrative than a barter trade which yielded only inconsistent customs duties. The delegation was led by Balewa of the NPC and included party leaders Awolowo of the Action Group, Azikiwe of the NCNC, and Bello of the NPC; they were also the premiers of the Western, Eastern and Northern regions, respectively. In 1950 Aminu Kano, who had been instrumental in founding the NPC, broke away to form the Northern Elements Progressive Union (NEPU), in protest against the NPC's limited objectives and what he regarded as a vain hope that traditional rulers would accept modernization. The conditions that led African peoples to resist colonial rule often emerged from longstanding grievances against colonial labor exploitation taxation racist and paternalist practices arbitrary violence and political illegitimacy. By a British Act of Parliament, Nigeria became independent on 1 October 1960. At that time many scholars believed that Nigeria was able to develop into a stable and fast-growing state due to its huge potential. The proliferation of labour organisations fragmented the movement, and potential leaders lacked the experience and skill to draw workers together. Even before gaining its charter, the Company signed treaties with local leaders which granted it broad sovereign powers. Dike, K. O. British staffs in each region continued to operate according to procedures developed before unification. Although this trade grew to significant proportionspalm oil exports alone were worth 1 billion a year by 1840it was concentrated near the coast, where palm trees grew in abundance. The most powerful figure in the party was Ahmadu Bello, the Sardauna of Sokoto. In practice, British administrative procedures under indirect rule entailed constant interaction between colonial authorities and local rulersthe system was modified to fit the needs of each region. The small contingent of northerners who had been educated abroada group that included Abubakar Tafawa Balewa and Aminu Kanowas allied with British-backed efforts to introduce gradual change to the emirates. [17] Much of this oil was sold elsewhere in the British Empire. At the turn of the century, top wages were four bags of salt (company retail price, 3s 9d) for a month of work. In general, the regional constitutions followed the federal model, both structurally and functionally. The rapid growth of organised labour in the 1940s also brought new political forces into play. Lugard, replacing Egerton as Governor, aborted the project in May 1913. The experiment began in 1890 and was repealed in 1939,[71]. Libyan Resistance. Northern leaders committed to modernization were also firmly connected to the traditional power structure. American president Dwight D. Eisenhower was represented at the independence ceremonies by Nelson Rockefeller, the . Whereas Lugard had applied lessons learned in the north to the administration of the south, Clifford was prepared to extend to the north practices that had been successful in the south. Britain withdrew from the slave trade when it was the major transporter of slaves to the Americas. Individuals could be fined or jailed for refusing to comply.[12]. The economy suffered from the decline in the slave trade, although considerable smuggling of slaves to the Americas continued for years afterward. According to the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyage Database, 308,800 were sold across the Atlantic from Lagos in 17761850. Modern nationalists in the south, whose thinking was shaped by European ideas, opposed indirect rule, as they believed that it had strengthened what they considered an anachronistic ruling class and shut out the emerging Westernised elite. Balewa formed a coalition government that included the Action Group as well as the NCNC to prepare the country for the final British withdrawal. . Afeadie, Philip Atsu. Mordi, Emmanuel Nwafor. [19], The company considered itself the sole legitimate government of the area, with executive, legislative and judicial powers all subordinate to the rule of a council created by the company board of directors in London. Colonization of Nigeria. Despite the acceptance of European and North American influences, the nationalists were critical of colonialism for its failure to appreciate the antiquity, richness and complexity of indigenous cultures. 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